'An explanation of the history of the corrections system and varying approaches to corrections by era Essay\r'

'An explanation of the history of the de trip ment of corrections body and alter approaches to corrections by epoch\r\nIntroduction\r\n Incarceration is a type of dense male concomitantor that became prevalent in the USA antecedent to the Revolution, although corrective im prison ho implement ho commitment efforts started in England as earlier as 1500s, a number of detention facilities and dungeons as forms of prisons were in existence ever since that fourth dimension. Efforts d angiotensin converting enzyme in readying prisons in was in 3 major modal values (Ayers, 1984). The starting time starting in the consummation of the Jackson Ian Era that became prevalent in reconstructive and imprisonment labor as the main penalization for m whatsoever curses in virtu each(prenominal)y all told places by civic War time.\r\nSubsequently thither was imprisonment following the Civil War gaining drive in the Liberal Period, getting close to tools†standardised change by reversal, trial, and unstipulated penalizingâ€in the conventional of corrective practice (Ekirch, 1987). Lastly, subsequently by and by the early 1970s, the USA has been involved in a historical exceptional eruptment of its imprisonment organizations at level of allege and federal. In the meantime in 1973, the gaol some superstars rose in a five-fold, and in any given year 7, 000,000 case-by-cases argon on a lower ground exit control and supervision of correction.\r\nIn these quantify of reforming and constructing prison great modifications in the prison responsibilities, missions and structure schemes of state and federal agencies for supervising and administering them, in addition to the govern cordial and legal status of captives themselves (Christianson, 1998).\r\nprison house is among one(a) of a number of sanctions avail adequate to(p) to the courts to deal with those who commit barbarous disrespects. impoundment to daytime is the harshest sancti on available (Alexander, 2012).\r\nIn the 1600s and 1700s\r\n Approval of malefactor behavior t endings to be transactions of ecumenic aimed at humiliating the someone and avoiding bumps from the mistake; these ar inclusive of the branding, stooping stool, whipping, scorning, and the stocks (Christianson, 1998). At that time the sentence for approximately wrongdoings was death. prison house inclined to organism a habitation where individuals were held up as they waited for their punishment and prior to their trial (Ekirch, 1987). It was hardly utilized in punishing in its modal value. E reallyone inclusive of boys, girls, men and women were locked together in prisons (Christianson, 1998). This period prisons were uglyly kept and lots managed by c atomic number 18 slight prison warders. People died from diseases like gal fever that is a form of typhus.\r\nIn this Era, a prototype correction building was build †the London Bride hale. Correction houses were at first part of the Poor Law machinery, anticipated to impart perseverance habits by prison labor (Alexander, 2012). Many individuals locked in them were minor offenders, tramps and the un clayatic indigenous unfortunate pile. Towards the end of 17th century, they were captivated into the system of prisons by local anesthetic anesthetic Justices of the Peace control.\r\nQuestion procedure 2\r\n rendering of the participants of the corrections system and their roles\r\n punitory officer (CO):\r\n He assists in controlling, directing and monitoring the movements and activities of yard birds (Ayers, 1984). He reachs for certain prison rules be followed, ensuring the safety and certification of inmates, rung, visitors and the biotic alliance (Alexander, 2012). As a visitor you will frequently come in contact with Correctional Officer.\r\nCorrectional Sergeant\r\n Correctional sergeants supervise Correctional officers and put to death c ustody work, which involves providing safety and security as well as controlling, directing and monitoring the activities and movement of bountiful inmates (Ekirch, 1987). Correctional Sergeants know a variety of duties depending upon where they ar assigned (Alexander, 2012). severally quick-wittedness has a public Access or visit Sergeant who principally provoke resolve issues relating to the visiting offset.\r\nCorrectional deputy sheriff\r\n A correctional lieutenant is trusty for security operations during his her shift and supervises Correctional Sergeants (Christianson, 1998). This position manages any response to emergency situations that whitethorn arise.\r\nCorrectional headwaiter\r\n This is the senior custody staff member trusty for facility-wide custody and security operations and supervision of Lieutenants (Ayers, 1984).\r\n alliance Corrections Officer (CCO), Classification Counselor (CC)\r\n Each inmate has an assigned CCO or CC, depending on the facility in which they reside or the county in which they argon supervised (Ekirch, 1987).. Counselors handle day-to-day issues or concerns of inmates in a support accommodations unit. Counselors ar responsible for smorgasbord and case counseling (education and work programs) and release preparation. CCOs be in the association offices, pre-release and work release facilities, providing a similar service to inmates who argon on community supervision.\r\nCorrectional Unit Supervisor (CUS)\r\n A CUS is responsible for the management of a housing unit, including the supervision of CCs or CCOs, and custody staff (Sergeants and Cos) (Alexander, 2012).\r\nQuestion Number 3\r\n Impediments and issues faced by corrections admins when running a prison\r\n harmonise to Alexander (2012), present prison populations beingness a mixture of short terminus and dour term and â€Å" sustenancers”, definite and indefinite sentenced inmates , the cronk the wellnessy, the young, the old. Rehabilitation and a part authority of feeling ar some of the undercoating behind such(prenominal) programs though the necessity of some of these programs is below testing (Christianson, 1998). Politicians and tax pay backers fr give upon such programs as connubial visitation, some feeling that the programs be too uncivilised and sometimes too expensive (Christianson, 1998). At the intense this programs are looked upon as a luxury and change magnitude the punishment effect of incarceration.\r\nManagement control of facilities is some some some different occupation (Ayers, 1984). The thought of contracting communicable diseases and being ab utilize by violent inmates threatens staff and the frequent population. angiotensin-converting enzyme solution is to remove predatory and other risk of infectionous offenders from the population (Ekirch, 1987). HIV-Positive inmates, serial killers, violent stir offenders being some. Many shit pro dod closing off of problem offenders.\r\nIt is a scary concept that an innocent person convicted of a crime to reach contracted assist charm being incarcerated (Alexander, 2012). Even scarier to perceive is if the inmate contracted the disease as a payoff of rape (Blackmon, 2008). The rates of HIV and AIDS in prisons are estimated at five times high than within the usual population. This fact has been attrisolelyed to a high number of inmates sharing of get hold ofles and withal of inmates that enroll in unprotected sex in prisons (Alexander, 2012). As of 1996, in that location were 25,000 inmates with HIV and by then only 16 states tested all inmates entering prison. The dilemma facing corrections is whether they should be segregated from the population to allow the spread of disease.\r\nThe quality of life of seropositive inmates is greatly stirred by administrative conclusivenesss on screening and detection, housing programs, access to quality medical intervention, mental wellness support, and funding. Management of HIV is very complicated (Ekirch, 1987). One must take multiple medications on varying schedules, custody and health staff must develop a supportive medication administrative system (Ayers, 1984). HIV-Positive need proper treatment and may assume a higher level care that may non be available at all areas of worlds. Patients with HIV infection may invite isolation if they have pulmonary tuberculosis. Obviously at that place is need for segregation.\r\nThere is the ethical issue of whether it is right to segregate all HIV-positive inmates from the general population. Activities are important to the casual lives of all inmates (Ayers, 1984). Aids patients are no different. Decisions on housing HIV-Positive inmates should be based on what is clutch for their age, gender, custody class, non beneficial for the fact that they are seropositive. Not all HIV-Positive inmates are a risk to other inmates (Bla ckmon, 2008). The type of distressing offence, length of time sentenced general behavior, and expert report gathered at the sort stage will be a better indication of whether they will pose a danger to the prison system.\r\nBesides communicable diseases, criminal recidivists pose an enormous fond problem to society Hirsch, hug drug J. (1992).\r\nA lethal predator such as serial killers and violent sex offenders pose a crabbed problem not just in the isolated world but inside prison cells. Most profilers say serial killers do not learn from mistakes in their previous killings. They feel no guilt, no remorse and have an attitude of integral disdain towards their victims. There’s a self that runs in all of them and must demonstrate mental abnormality, generally a combination of sexual sadism and psychopathy (Blackmon, 2008).\r\nConjugal visitation is not available to around married and unmarried inmates in U.S. prisons it is allowed only in six states, California, Con necticut, Mississippi, New Mexico, New York and Washington (Christianson, 1998). Viewed as an extra captive privilege in some jurisdictions, many members of the general public such as constabularymakers frown upon such issue. The thought of inmates enjoying themselves age overhaul a punitive prison sentence is mostly unacceptable to innocent, Ameri foot citizens who fall prey to criminal acts.\r\nMany view visitations as improving prison environment by giving inmates something to look frontwards to and an incentive to participate in rehabilitative programs, and a mechanism with which to cope with prison life (Christianson, 1998).\r\nReflecting on the prison population and some of the issues for the future of corrections, employees will have to become better versed in supervising and caring for the very dangerous, the average, the very young, the very old, the mentally ill and the infirm (Blackmon, 2008).\r\nQuestion Number 4\r\n A complete description of the righ ts of captives and the face of required services by prison officials:\r\nIn ossification to Alexander, Michelle (2012), these rights were embraced by the First United Nations fond intercourse on the Prevention of crimes and the treatment of offenders held at geneva in 1995, Part I of the rules covers the general management of debuts and is applicable to all categories of prisoners, criminal or civil, untested or convicted,\r\nBasic principle\r\nThere shall be no discrimination on grounds of race, color, sex, language, religion, semipolitical or other opinion, national or social origin, shoes, birth or other status (Christianson, 1998).\r\nOn the other hand, it is necessary to respect the religious beliefs and righteous precepts of the group to which a prisoner belongs.\r\nRegister\r\nAccording to Ayers, Edward L. (1984), In both place where persons are jug there shall be kept a hold in registration book with numbered pages in which shall be entered in respect of each pr isoner received:\r\n tuition concerning his identity\r\nThe reasons for his commitment and the authority therefor;\r\nThe day and hour of his admission and release\r\nNo person shall be received in an institution with knocked out(p) a valid commitment order of which the details shall have been previously entered in the register is in accordance to Bookspan, Shelley (1991). .\r\nSeparation of categories\r\n8. The different categories of prisoners shall be kept in abstract institutions or move of institutions taking consider of their sex, age, criminal record, the legal reason for their detention and the necessities of their treatment in accordance to Ekirch, A. Roger (1987).. Thus,\r\nMen and women shall so farther as possible be detained in shed light on institutions; in an institution which receives both men and women the building block of the premises allocated to women shall be entirely separate;\r\n inexperient prisoners shall be kept separate from convicted pr isoners;\r\nPersons imprisoned for debt and other civil prisoners shall be kept separate from persons imprisoned by reason of a criminal offence Hirsch, tour J. (1992);\r\nYoung prisoners shall be kept separate from adults.\r\nAccommodation\r\n 9. (1) where sleeping accommodation is in individual cells or ways, each prisoner shall occupy by night a cell or path by himself (Christianson, 1998). If for some reasons, such as episodic overcrowding, it becomes necessary for the central prison administration to make an exception to this rule, it is not desirable to have twain prisoners in a cell or room (Blackmon, 2008).\r\n(2) Where dormitories are used, they shall be occupied by prisoners conservatively selected as being commensurate to associate with one another in those conditions (Christianson, 1998). There shall be habitue supervision by night, in keeping with the reputation of the institution.\r\n10. each accommodation provided for the use of prisoners and in pa rticular all sleeping accommodation shall meet all requirements of health, referable regard being paid to climatical conditions and particularly to cubic content of air, minimum floor space, lighting, heating and ventilation (Ayers, 1984).\r\n11. every(prenominal) place the prisoners are needed to work or live.\r\n(a) The windows shall be commodious enough to enable the prisoners to read or work by natural light, and shall be so constructed that they can allow the entrance of fresh air whether or not there is artificial ventilation (Alexander, 2012).\r\n(b) faux light shall be delivered adequate to(predicate)ly for the prisoners to read or work without injury to vision.\r\n12. The sanitary installations shall be adequate to enable every prisoner to comply with the postulate of nature when necessary and in a piece and decent manner (Christianson, 1998).\r\n13. Adequate batheing and dispositioner installations shall be provided so that every prisoner may be enabled and requ ired to have a bath or shower, at a temperature suitable to the climate, as frequently as necessary for general hygienics according to season and geographical region, but at least once a week in a temperate climate (Ekirch, 1987).\r\n14. All parts of an institution regularly used by prisoners shall be properly maintained and kept scrupulously fairish at all times (Alexander, 2012).\r\nPersonal hygiene\r\n 15. Prisoners shall be required to keep their persons overbold, and to this end they shall be provided with water and with such toilet articles as are necessary for health and cleanliness (Ayers, 1984).\r\n16. In order that prisoners may maintain a wide appearance congruous with their self-respect, facilities shall be provided for the proper care of the hair and beard, and men shall be enabled to shave regularly (Alexander, 2012).\r\nClothing and bedding\r\n 17. (1) Every prisoner who is not allowed to wear his own clothing shall be provided with an outf it of clothing suitable for the climate and adequate to keep him in good health (Ayers, 1984). Such clothing shall in no manner be degrading or humiliating.\r\n(2) All clothing shall be clean and kept in proper condition (Christianson, 1998).. Underclothing shall be changed and religious service as often as necessary for the aliment of hygiene.\r\n(3) In exceptional circumstances, whenever a prisoner is remove outside the institution for an authorized purpose, he shall be allowed to wear his own clothing or other inconspicuous clothing (Blackmon, 2008).\r\n18. If prisoners are allowed to wear their own clothing, arrangements shall be do on their admission to the institution to ensure that it shall be clean and fit for use (Ayers, 1984).\r\n19. Every prisoner shall, in accordance with local or national standards, be provided with a separate bed, and with separate and sufficient bedding which shall be clean when issued, kept in good order and changed often enough to ensure its cl eanliness (Christianson, 1998).\r\nFood\r\n 20. (1) Every prisoner shall be provided by the administration at the usual hours with food of nutritional value adequate for health and strength, of wholesome quality and well prepared and served (Ekirch, 1987).\r\n(2) alcohol addiction water shall be available to every prisoner whenever he needs it.\r\nExercise and sport\r\n 21. (1) Every prisoner who is not employed in outdoor(prenominal) work shall have at least one hour of suitable exercise in the undetermined air unremarkable if the weather permits (Ekirch, 1987).\r\n(2) Young prisoners, and others of suitable age and physique, shall receive physical and recreational teaching during the period of exercise (Alexander, 2012). To this end space, installations and equipment should be provided.\r\n checkup services\r\n 22. (1) At every institution there shall be available the services of at least one qualified medical officer who should have some kno wledge of psychiatry(Alexander, 2012). The medical services should be organized in close relationship to the general health administration of the community or nation. They shall hold a psychiatric service for the diagnosis and, in proper cases, the treatment of states of mental abnormality.\r\n(2) Sick prisoners who require finickyist treatment shall be transferred to specialized institutions or to civil hospitals (Ayers, 1984). Where hospital facilities are provided in an institution, their equipment, furnishings and pharmaceutical supplies shall be proper for the medical care and treatment of sick prisoners, and there shall be a staff of suitable trained officers.\r\n(3) The services of a qualified dental officer shall be available to every prisoner.\r\n23. (1) In women’s institutions there shall be special accommodation for all necessary pre-natal and post-natal care and treatment. Arrangements shall be make wherever practicable for children to be innate(p) in a hospita l outside the institution (Ekirch, 1987). If a child is born in prison, this fact shall not be mentioned in the birth certificate.\r\n due to limitation of pages I shall summarize the rest as medical care shall be adequately provided to prisoners, specify and order shall be maintained with firmness so as to have safe custody and a well and orderly life (Alexander, 2012)…\r\nNo prisoner shall be punished unless he has been informed of the offence alleged against him and given a proper hazard of presenting his defense (Christianson, 1998). The medical officer shall visit daily and advice director if he considers the termination or alteration of the punishment necessary.\r\nQuestion Number 5\r\n A detailed description of alternative forms of corrections, including methods of rehabilitation and reintroduction to society.\r\nPrison abolition movement attempts to eliminate prisons and the prison system (Christianson, 1998). Prison abolitionists see the prisons as an ine ffective way to decrease crime and reform criminals, and that the modern criminal justice system to be racist, sexist, classist (Ayers, 1984). One of the arguments made for prison abolition is that the majority of people accuse of crime cannot afford to pay a lawyer.\r\nship canal of eliminating incarceration could admit:\r\nDecriminalization\r\nAbolishing the system of bail\r\nEstablishing community based dispute and intermediation centers\r\n take ie creating community mechanisms for assuring payment or services by wrong doers to the wronged\r\nFines\r\nSuspended sentences\r\n union probation programs\r\nAlternative sentencing\r\nDecriminalization\r\n Process of decriminalization room to wipe certain laws off the books. criminal offenses considered for decriminalization are those that are victimless (Christianson, 1998). This is defined as offences that do not effect in someone feeling that s/he has been injured in a way of impelling him/her to bring the offence to the attention of the authorities (Ekirch, 1987). The essential factor is that there is no victim to bring complaint, three statutes emerge within this interpretation: moral statutes, illness statutes, nuisance statutes.\r\nVictimless crimes maybe irritating, annoying, or troublesome in general, but they are not really injurious to anyone in particular, they are â€Å"crimes” because the law says they are â€Å"crimes” (Christianson, 1998). Among those usually sighted are non-commercial gambling, prostitution, â€Å" unnatural” sexual acts in private among consenting adult, public intoxication, possession, sale and distribution of illegal drugs, â€Å" blueness laws” against doing subscriber line on Sundays, loitering, disorderly conduct and vagrancy, truancy, incorrigible, decided or ungovernable behavior\r\nAbolitionists advocate drastically limiting the role of criminal law (Ayers, 1984). It is effected that criminal sanctions are not an effectiv e way of dealing with social problem. There is unjust and domineering law enforcement. Powerless persons are imprisoned while sizeable persons go free (Ayers, 1984). Blacks and poor people bear the brunt of unequal law enforcement. Morality cannot be coerced through law. A democratic society should dwell a wide range of individual differences (Alexander, 2012). A person’s right to do what s/he wishes should be respected as long as s/he does not entrench upon the right of others.\r\nOver criminalization encourages the wide use of discretionary power in law enforcement, because there is no complainant, police resort to questionable meaning of enforcement, investigative techniques used to gather evidence are often immoral and sometimes illegal (Ekirch, 1987). These accept entrapment, use of informers, wiretapping, and infringement of constitutional rights such as illegal search and seizure, invasion of right of privacy and self-incrimination (Ayers, 1984). Enforcement of victimless crimes in addition encourages corruption.\r\nGraft and pay-offs are frequently made by neighborhood numbers rackets and places of prostitution (Blackmon, 2008). law-breaking syndicates manage to soak up oft bullion flowing through illicit â€Å"industries” such as gambling and drugs. Prostitutes are fetched mostly the ones who are black, while most of their victims are white aged between 30 and 60 years thus there is selective enforcement\r\n Abolition of bail\r\n All persons are innocent of crime until proven guilty. No one may be deprived of liberty without the due process of law (Christianson, 1998). The mechanism developed by British society for this purpose was bail.\r\nDe Tocqueville clearly precept that the bail system is inherently discriminatory against the poor (Ekirch, 1987). By placing a price tag on the right to freedom before trial beyond the reach of indigent, it makes a mockery of the presumption of whiteness and provide s the underpinning for the use of the criminal (in) justice systems by the powerful to control the powerless.\r\nBail has been shown to be unnecessary to come upon its stated objective of return to court (Ayers, 1984). The cost are paid in three coins: in human suffering by the poor who are its hostages; in money by the taxpaying essence class; and in the erosion of civil liberties arising from the system’s hidden abuses.\r\nIn accordance to Hirsch, Adam J. (1992), the beneficiaries are: professional criminals, for whom ransom is a â€Å"business expense”; the wealthy, who are protected by a custody system paid for mainly by the taxes of the middle class as an instrument of social control against the poor and dissident; and bonds people, who make their living from the bail system and are pledged to serve that system.\r\nDespite proof that the system of bail is unnecessary to assure court appearances, the holding of hostages continues (Blackmon, 2008). The cost of the ir incarceration both in economic and human impairment is staggering (Ekirch, 1987). Half or more of charge persons are detained in jail pending trial. On a single day, if the system of bail were abolished, upward of 50,000 pretrial detainees could be released from jail and thousands in the arrest and arraignment stage would avoid the cage entirely.\r\nBail has been used as an instrument of preventive detention and as a constitutionally guaranteed avenue of pretrial release (Alexander, 2012). There are thus prejudices too much room in the bail system and no defense against, the administration of justice by in-person from which no one, including the judge is free. The abolition of bail would denounce this hidden agenda and force the development of abrupt and fair rules and judicial accountability.\r\nCommunity dispute and mediation centers\r\n Mediation centers present a unique chance for grass roots involvement in the process of justice and excarceration (Blackmon , 2008). Abolitionists recommend the establishment of such centers in every neighborhood By the use of the look at model where neighbors and kin of the disputants listen to the airing of disputes (Christianson, 1998). It is not coercive and allows the disputants to discuss their problems In an atmosphere free from the questions of past fact and guilt.\r\nRestitution\r\n Payment can be made by the offender for a particular amount of dollars for a particular harming of injury and y amount of dollars for another, as in workmen’s compensation or in civil wrong (Gottschalk, 2006). The lawbreaker then is kept in the community and corrects his/her wrong, corrects discomfort and inconvenience of victim, saves community and individual economic and psychic costs of trial etc., reduces role of criminal law (Ekirch, 1987).\r\nFines\r\n The poor unable to pay fines consistently filled the jails until a supreme court decision in 1971 ruled that an indigent could no t be imprisoned upon non- payment of a fine but must be given an opportunity to pay in installments, the wrong doer is then able to stay in the community, saving the state probation expenses, eudaimonia expenses, and the human costs of caging.\r\nSuspended sentences\r\n Used as a mechanism of establishing responsibility for wrong doing without high-minded punishment or any supervisory conditions on the wrongdoer , the defendant loses fewer civil right, while probation is likened to suspended sentence, they differ in that probation carries with it the threat of imprisonment, most variations of the suspended sentence require that no law be violated (Blackmon, 2008). It is the least punitive of a range of alternative sentences.\r\nProbation\r\n It is the most commonly certain and widely used mode of excarceration (Blackmon, 2008). Though mostly used on non- violent crimes, it has been extended to include other homicides and other serious wrongs which usually re sult in imprisonment. In unsupervised probation, persons would be under no compulsion to report or participate in programs, but could request for help from probation officers in accordance to Hirsch, Adam J. (1992).\r\nQuestion Number 6.\r\n A comprehensive list of alternative strategies to incarceration with an assessment, both pro and con, showing their worth as relate to traditional, incarceration strategies.\r\nThe predominate purpose this question was asked was to instance that there are programs accessible and effective substitutes available instead of incarceration. Some of the famous ones used at present will be described briefly.\r\n outgrowth in Early childhood: The Head go away program returns about seven dollars in benefits for every dollar invested (Ayers, 1984). Children born in poverty who accompanied a head start pre groom program have half as many criminal arrests, less likelihood of going to jail, higher earnings and property wealth, and a greater c ommitment to family than similarly determine people who did not attend the program (Alexander, 2012).\r\n rehabilitation: Where teenagers will get ways to entertain themselves, by breaking windows and drinking liquor if not by playing ball or some other sport (Alexander, 2012). Parks and recreational opportunities like the Midnight basketball and late night recreation center openings are proven effective at reducing crime (Alexander, 2012). When a pilot program in Phoenix, Arizona, kept recreation centers open until 2 a.m., juvenile crimes rock-bottom by as much as 50%. The cost of the program was kept low at only sixty cents per person (Ayers, 1984).\r\n clique sensory faculty: Kids often turn to gangs because of the absence of pro-social recreational alternatives. Kids also turn to gangs for a sense of being, something they may not be receiving at home (Ekirch, 1987). Parents sometimes do not take enough time with their children to show them their worth at home, giving them a reason to stay instead of roaming the streets. Most often times, gangs are more destructive to property than to human life (Alexander, 2012). When gangs do turn violent, it is most often times directed at â€Å" contend” gangs or families of the rival gang members. Gangs are a problem, not just in big metropolitan cities, but also in small suburban towns and rural America. Gang problems must be addressed at the first signs of potential activity.\r\nSociety needs to teach children that gangs are not proper places to gain education and experiences, which should be accomplished more effectively in school and at home (Ayers, 1984). Education: Education is the way to better jobs and a potential way out of crime (Ekirch, 1987). In 1991, for the first time in U.S. history, cities spent more on law enforcement than on education (Alexander, 2012).\r\nJurisdictions around the country are slash education budgets because they lack sufficient funds, while vista aside funds for law enfo rcement (Ayers, 1984). 16 Schools that take in parents or caretakers in troubled communities show subtle results. Now, I don’t necessarily condition with cutting back on law enforcement spend (Ekirch, 1987).\r\nReferences\r\nAlexander, Michelle (2012). The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness, New York.\r\nAyers, Edward L. (1984), Vengeance and Justice: Crime and Punishment in the 19th-Century American South, New York.\r\nBlackmon, Douglas A. (2008), bondage by another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II, New York.\r\nBookspan, Shelley (1991). A Germ of Goodness: The California State Prison System, 1851â€1944, Lincoln.\r\nChristianson, Scott (1998). With Liberty for Some: 500 Years of Imprisonment in America, Boston.\r\nEkirch, A. Roger (1987). Bound for America: The Transportation of British Convicts to the Colonies, 1718â€1775, Oxford.\r\nGottschalk, Marie (2006). The Prison and the Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America, Cambridge.\r\nHindus, Michael Stephen (1980). Prison and Plantation: Crime, Justice, and Authority in mom and South Carolina, 1767â€1878, Chapel Hill.\r\nHirsch, Adam J. (1992). The Rise of the penitentiary: Prisons and Punishment in Early America, New harbor\r\nGottschalk, Marie (2006). The Prison and the Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America, Cambridge.\r\nHindus, Michael Stephen (1980). Prison and Plantation: Crime, Justice, and Authority in mommy and South Carolina, 1767â€1878, Chapel Hill.\r\nHirsch, Adam J. (1992). The Rise of the playpen: Prisons and Punishment in Early America, New oasis\r\nSource document\r\n'